Cryptographic means of information protection encryption. Means of cryptographic information protection: types and application. Main Goals of Cryptography

The requirements for information security when designing information systems indicate the characteristics that characterize the information security means used. They are defined by various acts of regulators in the field of information security, in particular by the FSTEC and the FSB of Russia. What security classes there are, types and types of protective equipment, as well as where to find out more about this, are reflected in the article.

Introduction

Today, issues of ensuring information security are the subject of close attention, since technologies being implemented everywhere without ensuring information security become a source of new serious problems.

The Russian FSB reports on the seriousness of the situation: the amount of damage caused by attackers over several years around the world ranged from $300 billion to $1 trillion. According to information provided by the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation, in the first half of 2017 alone, the number of crimes in the field of high technology in Russia increased sixfold, the total amount of damage exceeded $18 million. An increase in targeted attacks in the industrial sector in 2017 was noted throughout the world . In particular, in Russia the increase in the number of attacks compared to 2016 was 22%.

Information technologies began to be used as weapons for military-political, terrorist purposes, to interfere in the internal affairs of sovereign states, as well as to commit other crimes. The Russian Federation stands for the creation of an international information security system.

On the territory of the Russian Federation, information holders and information system operators are required to block attempts of unauthorized access to information, as well as monitor the security status of the IT infrastructure on an ongoing basis. At the same time, information protection is ensured by taking various measures, including technical ones.

Information security tools, or information protection systems, ensure the protection of information in information systems, which are essentially a collection of information stored in databases, information technologies that ensure its processing, and technical means.

Modern information systems are characterized by the use of various hardware and software platforms, the territorial distribution of components, as well as interaction with open data networks.

How to protect information in such conditions? The corresponding requirements are presented by authorized bodies, in particular, FSTEC and the FSB of Russia. Within the framework of the article, we will try to reflect the main approaches to the classification of information security systems, taking into account the requirements of these regulators. Other ways of describing the classification of information security, reflected in the regulatory documents of Russian departments, as well as foreign organizations and agencies, are beyond the scope of this article and are not considered further.

The article may be useful to novice specialists in the field of information security as a source of structured information on methods of classifying information security based on the requirements of the FSTEC of Russia (to a greater extent) and, briefly, the FSB of Russia.

The structure that determines the procedure and coordinates the provision of non-cryptographic information security methods is the FSTEC of Russia (formerly the State Technical Commission under the President of the Russian Federation, State Technical Commission).

If the reader had to see the State Register of Certified Information Security Tools, which is formed by the FSTEC of Russia, then he certainly paid attention to the presence in the descriptive part of the purpose of the information protection system such phrases as “RD SVT class”, “level of absence of non-compliance with non-compliance”, etc. (Figure 1) .

Figure 1. Fragment of the register of certified information protection devices

Classification of cryptographic information security tools

The FSB of Russia has defined classes of cryptographic information protection systems: KS1, KS2, KS3, KV and KA.

The main features of KS1 class IPS include their ability to withstand attacks launched from outside the controlled area. This implies that the creation of attack methods, their preparation and implementation is carried out without the participation of specialists in the field of development and analysis of cryptographic information security. It is assumed that information about the system in which the specified information security systems are used can be obtained from open sources.

If a cryptographic information security system can withstand attacks blocked by means of class KS1, as well as those carried out within the controlled area, then such information security corresponds to class KS2. It is assumed, for example, that during the preparation of an attack, information about physical measures to protect information systems, ensuring a controlled area, etc. could become available.

If it is possible to resist attacks if there is physical access to computer equipment with installed cryptographic security information, such equipment is said to comply with the KS3 class.

If cryptographic information security resists attacks, the creation of which involved specialists in the field of development and analysis of these tools, including research centers, and it was possible to conduct laboratory studies of security means, then we are talking about compliance with the HF class.

If specialists in the field of using NDV system software were involved in the development of attack methods, the corresponding design documentation was available and there was access to any hardware components of cryptographic information security systems, then protection against such attacks can be provided by means of the KA class.

Classification of electronic signature protection means

Electronic signature tools, depending on their ability to withstand attacks, are usually compared with the following classes: KS1, KS2, KS3, KB1, KB2 and KA1. This classification is similar to that discussed above in relation to cryptographic information security.

Conclusions

The article examined some methods of classifying information security in Russia, the basis of which is the regulatory framework of regulators in the field of information protection. The considered classification options are not exhaustive. Nevertheless, we hope that the summary information presented will allow a novice specialist in the field of information security to navigate more quickly.

Cryptographic information protection - protection of information using its cryptographic transformation.

Cryptographic methods are currently basic to ensure reliable authentication of the parties to information exchange, protection.

TO means of cryptographic information protection(CIPF) includes hardware, firmware and software that implement cryptographic algorithms for converting information for the purpose of:

Protection of information during its processing, storage and transmission;

Ensuring the reliability and integrity of information (including using digital signature algorithms) during its processing, storage and transmission;

Generating information used to identify and authenticate subjects, users and devices;

Generation of information used to protect the authenticating elements of a protected AS during their generation, storage, processing and transmission.

Cryptographic methods provide encryption and encoding of information. There are two main encryption methods: symmetric and asymmetric. In the first of them, the same key (kept secret) is used to both encrypt and decrypt data.

Very effective (fast and reliable) symmetric encryption methods have been developed. There is also a national standard for such methods - GOST 28147-89 “Information processing systems. Cryptographic protection. Cryptographic conversion algorithm".

Asymmetric methods use two keys. One of them, unclassified (it can be published along with other public information about the user), is used for encryption, the other (secret, known only to the recipient) is used for decryption. The most popular of the asymmetric ones is the RSA method, based on operations with large (100-digit) prime numbers and their products.

Cryptographic methods make it possible to reliably control the integrity of both individual pieces of data and their sets (such as a message flow); determine the authenticity of the data source; guarantee the impossibility of refusing actions taken (“non-repudiation”).

Cryptographic integrity control is based on two concepts:

Electronic signature (ES).

A hash function is a hard-to-reversible data transformation (one-way function), implemented, as a rule, by means of symmetric encryption with block linking. The result of encryption of the last block (depending on all previous ones) serves as the result of the hash function.

Cryptography as a means of protecting (closing) information is becoming increasingly important in commercial activities.

To transform information, various encryption tools are used: document encryption tools, including portable ones, speech encryption tools (telephone and radio conversations), telegraph message encryption tools and data transmission.

To protect trade secrets, various technical devices and sets of professional equipment for encryption and cryptographic protection of telephone and radio conversations, business correspondence, etc. are offered on the international and domestic markets.

Scramblers and maskers, which replace the speech signal with digital data transmission, have become widespread. Security products for teletypewriters, telexes and faxes are produced. For these purposes, encryptors are used, made in the form of separate devices, in the form of attachments to devices, or built into the design of telephones, fax modems and other communication devices (radio stations and others). To ensure the reliability of transmitted electronic messages, an electronic digital signature is widely used.

CIPF (cryptographic information protection tool) is a program or device that encrypts documents and generates an electronic signature (ES). All operations are performed using an electronic signature key, which cannot be selected manually, since it is a complex set of characters. This ensures reliable information protection.

How CIPF works

1. The sender creates a document
2. Using CIPF and a private key, the electronic signature adds a signature file, encrypts the document and combines everything into a file that is sent to the recipient
3. The file is sent to the recipient
4. The recipient decrypts the document using CIPF and the private key of his electronic signature
5. The recipient checks the integrity of the electronic signature, making sure that no changes have been made to the document

Types of CIPF for electronic signature

There are two types of cryptographic information protection tools: installed separately and built into the media.

CIPF installed separately is a program that is installed on any computer device. Such CIPF are used everywhere, but have one drawback: they are strictly tied to one workplace. You will be able to work with any number of electronic signatures, but only on the computer or laptop on which CIPF is installed. To work on different computers, you will have to buy an additional license for each.

When working with electronic signatures, the cryptoprovider CryptoPro CSP is most often used as the installed CIPF. The program runs on Windows, Unix and other operating systems, and supports domestic security standards GOST R 34.11-2012 and GOST R 34.10-2012.

Other cryptographic information protection systems are used less frequently:

1. Signal-COM CSP
2. LISSI-CSP
3. VipNet CSP

All listed CIPFs are certified by the FSB and FSTEC and comply with security standards adopted in Russia. For full operation they also require the purchase of a license.

CIPF built into the media, are encryption tools built into the device that are programmed to work independently. They are convenient due to their self-sufficiency. Everything you need to sign an agreement or report is already on the media itself. There is no need to buy licenses or install additional software. A computer or laptop with Internet access is sufficient. Encryption and decryption of data is carried out within the media. Media with built-in CIPF include Rutoken EDS, Rutoken EDS 2.0 and JaCarta SE.

P The problem of protecting information by transforming it so that it cannot be read by an outsider has worried the human mind since ancient times. The history of cryptography is coeval with the history of human language. Moreover, writing itself was originally a cryptographic system, since in ancient societies only a select few mastered it. The sacred books of Ancient Egypt and Ancient India are examples of this.

TO cryptographic methods of information protection are special methods of encrypting, encoding or otherwise transforming information, as a result of which its content becomes inaccessible without presenting the cryptogram key and reverse transformation. The cryptographic method of protection is, of course, the most reliable method of protection, since the information itself is protected, and not access to it (for example, an encrypted file cannot be read even if the media is stolen). This protection method is implemented in the form of programs or software packages.

Modern cryptography includes four major sections:

Symmetric cryptosystems. In symmetric cryptosystems, the same key is used for both encryption and decryption. (Encryption is a transformation process: the original text, which is also called plaintext, is replaced by ciphertext, decryption is the reverse process of encryption. Based on the key, the ciphertext is converted into the original);

Public key cryptosystems. Public key systems use two keys, a public and a private, that are mathematically related to each other. Information is encrypted using a public key, which is available to everyone, and decrypted using a private key, known only to the recipient of the message. (The key is the information necessary for the smooth encryption and decryption of texts.);

Electronic signature. Electronic signature system. is called a cryptographic transformation attached to the text, which allows, when the text is received by another user, to verify the authorship and authenticity of the message.

Key management. This is the process of information processing systems, the content of which is the compilation and distribution of keys between users.

ABOUT The main areas of use of cryptographic methods are the transfer of confidential information through communication channels (for example, e-mail), establishing the authenticity of transmitted messages, storing information (documents, databases) on media in encrypted form.

Requirements for cryptosystems

P The process of cryptographic data closure can be carried out both in software and in hardware. The hardware implementation is significantly more expensive, but it also has advantages: high performance, simplicity, security, etc. The software implementation is more practical and allows for a certain flexibility in use. The following generally accepted requirements are formulated for modern cryptographic information security systems:

the encrypted message must be readable only if the key is available;

the number of operations required to determine the used encryption key from a fragment of an encrypted message and the corresponding plaintext must be no less than the total number of possible keys;

the number of operations required to decrypt information by searching through all possible keys must have a strict lower bound and go beyond the capabilities of modern computers (taking into account the possibility of using network computing);

knowledge of the encryption algorithm should not affect the reliability of the protection;

a slight change in the key should lead to a significant change in the appearance of the encrypted message, even when using the same key;

the structural elements of the encryption algorithm must be unchanged;

additional bits introduced into the message during the encryption process must be completely and securely hidden in the ciphertext;

the length of the ciphertext must be equal to the length of the original text;

there should be no simple and easily established dependencies between the keys used sequentially in the encryption process;

any of the many possible keys must provide reliable information protection;

the algorithm must allow both software and hardware implementation, while changing the key length should not lead to a qualitative deterioration of the encryption algorithm.

Symmetric cryptosystems

IN All the variety of existing cryptographic methods in symmetric cryptosystems can be reduced to the following 4 classes of transformations:

substitution - characters of the encrypted text are replaced with characters of the same or another alphabet in accordance with a predetermined rule;

permutation - the characters of the encrypted text are rearranged according to a certain rule within a given block of transmitted text;

analytical transformation - the encrypted text is transformed according to some analytical rule, for example, gamma - consists of imposing on the source text some pseudo-random sequence generated based on the key;

combined transformation - represent a sequence (with possible repetition and alternation) of basic transformation methods applied to a block (part) of encrypted text. In practice, block ciphers are more common than “pure” transformations of one class or another due to their higher cryptographic strength. Russian and American encryption standards are based on this class.

Public key systems

TO No matter how complex and reliable cryptographic systems are, their weak point in practical implementation is the problem of key distribution. In order for the exchange of confidential information between two IP subjects to be possible, the key must be generated by one of them, and then somehow, again confidentially, transferred to the other. Those. in general, transferring the key again requires the use of some kind of cryptosystem. To solve this problem, public key systems have been proposed based on the results obtained from classical and modern algebra. Their essence is that each addressee of the information system generates two keys connected to each other according to a certain rule. One key is declared public and the other private. The public key is published and available to anyone who wishes to send a message to the recipient. The secret key is kept secret. The original text is encrypted with the recipient's public key and transmitted to him. The ciphertext cannot in principle be decrypted with the same public key. Decryption of a message is only possible using a private key, which is known only to the recipient. Public key cryptographic systems use so-called irreversible or one-way functions, which have the following property: given a value of x, it is relatively easy to calculate the value of f(x), but if y=f(x), then there is no easy way to calculate the value of x. The set of classes of irreversible functions gives rise to all the variety of public key systems. However, not every irreversible function is suitable for use in real ICs. There is uncertainty in the very definition of irreversibility. Irreversibility does not mean theoretical irreversibility, but the practical impossibility of calculating the reciprocal value using modern computing tools over a foreseeable time interval. Therefore, in order to guarantee reliable information protection, public key systems (PSK) are subject to two important and obvious requirements:

1. The transformation of the source text must be irreversible and cannot be restored based on the public key.

Determining a private key from a public key should also be impossible at the current level of technology. In this case, an exact lower bound for the complexity (number of operations) of breaking the cipher is desirable.

A Public key encryption algorithms have become widespread in modern information systems. Thus, the RSA algorithm has become the de facto world standard for open systems. In general, all public key cryptosystems offered today rely on one of the following types of irreversible transformations:

• Factoring large numbers into prime factors;
• Calculation of the logarithm in a finite field;
• Calculation of roots of algebraic equations.

Z Here it should be noted that public key cryptosystem (PSC) algorithms can be used for the following purposes:

1. As independent means of protecting transmitted and stored data.
2. As a means of distributing keys.

A RNS algorithms are more labor-intensive than traditional cryptosystems. Therefore, in practice it is often rational to use RNS to distribute keys, the volume of which as information is insignificant. And then, using conventional algorithms, exchange large information flows. One of the most common is the public key system - RSA. The RSA cryptosystem was developed in 1977 and named after its creators: Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Eidelman. They took advantage of the fact that finding large prime numbers is computationally easy, but factoring the product of two such numbers is practically impossible. It has been proven (Rabin's theorem) that breaking the RSA cipher is equivalent to this decomposition. Therefore, for any key length, we can give a lower estimate for the number of operations to crack the cipher, and, taking into account the performance of modern computers, estimate the time required for this. The ability to reliably evaluate the security of the RSA algorithm has become one of the reasons for the popularity of this RSA compared to dozens of other schemes. Therefore, the RSA algorithm is used in banking computer networks, especially for working with remote clients (credit card services).

Electronic signature

IN what is the problem of data authentication? At the end of a regular letter or document, the executor or responsible person usually puts his signature. Such an action usually serves two purposes. Firstly, the recipient has the opportunity to verify the authenticity of the letter by comparing the signature with a sample he has. Secondly, a personal signature is a legal guarantee of the authorship of the document. The last aspect is especially important when concluding various types of trade transactions, drawing up powers of attorney, obligations, etc. If it is very difficult to forge a person’s signature on paper, and establishing the authorship of a signature using modern forensic methods is a technical detail, then with an electronic signature the situation is different. Any user can tamper with a bit string by simply copying it, or make illegal corrections to a document without being noticed. With the widespread use in the modern world of electronic forms of documents (including confidential ones) and means of processing them, the problem of establishing the authenticity and authorship of paperless documentation has become particularly relevant. In the section on public key cryptographic systems, it was shown that despite all the advantages of modern encryption systems, they do not allow for data authentication. Therefore, authentication means must be used in conjunction with cryptographic algorithms.

Key management

TO In addition to choosing a cryptographic system suitable for a particular IS, an important issue is key management. No matter how complex and reliable the cryptosystem itself is, it is based on the use of keys. If to ensure confidential exchange of information between two users, the process of exchanging keys is trivial, then in an information system where the number of users is tens and hundreds, key management is a serious problem. Key information is understood as the totality of all keys active in the IS. If sufficiently reliable management of key information is not ensured, then having taken possession of it, the attacker gains unlimited access to all information. Key management is an information process that includes three elements:

• key generation;
• accumulation of keys;
• key distribution.

R Let's look at how they should be implemented in order to ensure the security of key information in the IS.

Key generation

INAt the very beginning of the conversation about cryptographic methods, it was said that you should not use non-random keys in order to make them easier to remember. Serious information systems use special hardware and software methods for generating random keys. As a rule, PSCH sensors are used. However, the degree of randomness of their generation should be quite high. Ideal generators are devices based on “natural” random processes. For example, a random mathematical object is the decimal places of irrational numbers, which are calculated using standard mathematical methods.
5.3.5.2. Accumulation of keys.

P The accumulation of keys refers to the organization of their storage, accounting and removal. Since the key is the most attractive object for an attacker, opening the way to confidential information, special attention should be paid to the accumulation of keys. Private keys should never be written explicitly on a medium that can be read or copied. In a fairly complex information system, one user can work with a large amount of key information, and sometimes there is even a need to organize mini-databases of key information. Such databases are responsible for accepting, storing, recording and deleting used keys. So, each information about the keys used must be stored in encrypted form. Keys that encrypt key information are called master keys. It is desirable that each user knows the master keys by heart and does not store them on any tangible media at all. A very important condition for information security is the periodic updating of key information in the IS. In this case, both regular keys and master keys must be reassigned. In especially critical information systems, it is advisable to update key information daily. The issue of updating key information is also related to the third element of key management—key distribution.

Key distribution

R Key distribution is the most critical process in key management. There are two requirements for it:

• Efficiency and accuracy of distribution;
• Secrecy of distributed keys.

IN Recently, there has been a noticeable shift towards the use of public key cryptosystems, in which the problem of key distribution disappears. Nevertheless, the distribution of key information in information systems requires new effective solutions. Distribution of keys between users is implemented in two different approaches:

By creating one or several key distribution centers. The disadvantage of this approach is that the distribution center knows who is assigned what keys and this makes it possible to read all messages circulating in the IS. Possible abuses have a significant impact on protection.

Direct exchange of keys between users of the information system. In this case, the challenge is to reliably authenticate the subjects. Public key cryptosystems can be used to exchange keys using the same RSA algorithm.

IN As a generalization of what has been said about key distribution, the following should be said. The key management problem comes down to finding a key distribution protocol that would provide:

the possibility of abandoning the key distribution center;

mutual confirmation of the authenticity of session participants;

confirmation of the authenticity of the session by the request-response mechanism, using software or hardware for this;

using a minimum number of messages when exchanging keys.

Implementation of cryptographic methods

P The problem of implementing information security methods has two aspects:

development of tools that implement cryptographic algorithms;

methodology for using these funds.

TO Each of the considered cryptographic methods can be implemented either in software or in hardware. The possibility of software implementation is determined by the fact that all methods of cryptographic transformation are formal and can be presented in the form of a final algorithmic procedure. When implemented in hardware, all encryption and decryption procedures are performed by special electronic circuits. The most widely used modules are those that implement combined methods. Most foreign serial encryption tools are based on the American DES standard. Domestic developments, such as, for example, the KRYPTON device, use the domestic encryption standard. The main advantage of software methods for implementing protection is their flexibility, i.e. the ability to quickly change encryption algorithms. The main disadvantage of software implementation is its significantly lower performance compared to hardware (about 10 times). Recently, combined encryption tools, the so-called hardware and software, have begun to appear. In this case, the computer uses a kind of “cryptographic coprocessor” - a computing device focused on performing cryptographic operations (modulo addition, shift, etc.). By changing the software for such a device, you can choose one or another encryption method. This method combines the advantages of software and hardware methods.

T Thus, the choice of the type of cryptographic protection implementation for a specific information system largely depends on its characteristics and should be based on a comprehensive analysis of the requirements for the information security system.

Identification and Authentication

AND Identification and authentication can be considered the basis of software and hardware security tools. Identification and authentication are the first line of defense, the “gateway” of the organization’s information space.

AND Identification allows an entity—a user or process acting on behalf of a specific user—to identify itself by providing its name. Through authentication, the second party ensures that the subject is who he claims to be. The word “authentication” is sometimes used as a synonym for “authentication”. A subject can prove their identity by presenting at least one of the following entities:

• something he knows: a password, personal identification number, cryptographic key, etc.;
• something that he owns: a personal card or other device of a similar purpose;
• something that is part of himself: voice, fingerprints, etc., that is, his biometric characteristics;
• something associated with it, such as coordinates.

G The main advantage of password authentication is its simplicity and familiarity. Passwords have long been built into operating systems and other services. When used correctly, passwords can provide an acceptable level of security for many organizations. Nevertheless, based on the totality of their characteristics, they should be recognized as the weakest means of authentication. The strength of passwords is based on the ability to remember them and keep them secret. You can spy on your password entry. The password can be guessed using brute force, perhaps using a dictionary. If the password file is encrypted but readable, you can download it to your computer and try to guess the password by programming a brute force search.

P Passwords are vulnerable to electronic interception - this is the most fundamental flaw that cannot be compensated for by improved administration or user training. Almost the only solution is to use cryptography to encrypt passwords before transmission over communication lines.

T However, the following measures can significantly increase the reliability of password protection:

imposing technical restrictions (the password should not be too short, it should contain letters, numbers, punctuation marks, etc.);

managing password expiration dates and changing them periodically;

restricting access to the password file;

limiting the number of failed login attempts, which will make it more difficult to use brute force methods;

training and education of users;

the use of software password generators, which, based on simple rules, can generate only euphonious and, therefore, memorable passwords.

P It is advisable to always apply the above measures, even if, along with passwords, other authentication methods are used, based, for example, on the use of tokens.

T An oken is an item or device whose possession confirms the user's identity. There are tokens with memory (passive, which only store but do not process information) and smart tokens (active).

WITH The most common type of memory token is a card with a magnetic stripe. To use such tokens, you need a reader equipped with a keyboard and processor. Typically, the user types his personal identification number on this keyboard, after which the processor checks that it matches what is written on the card, as well as the authenticity of the card itself. Thus, a combination of two protection methods is actually used here, which significantly complicates the actions of an attacker.

N It is necessary to process authentication information by the reader itself, without transferring it to a computer - this eliminates the possibility of electronic interception.

AND Sometimes (usually for physical access control) cards are used on their own, without requiring a personal identification number.

TO As we know, one of the most powerful tools in the hands of an attacker is to change the authentication program, in which passwords are not only checked, but also remembered for subsequent unauthorized use.

AND Smart tokens are characterized by the presence of their own computing power. They are divided into smart cards, ISO standardized and other tokens. Cards require an interface device; other tokens usually have a manual interface (display and keyboard) and resemble calculators in appearance. For the token to work, the user must enter their personal identification number.

P Based on the principle of operation, smart tokens can be divided into the following categories:

Static password exchange: the user proves his authenticity to the token in the usual way, then the token is verified by the computer system;

Dynamic password generation: the token generates passwords by periodically changing them. The computer system must have a synchronized password generator. Information from the token is received via an electronic interface or typed by the user on the terminal keyboard;

Challenge-response systems: The computer produces a random number, which is converted by a cryptographic mechanism built into the token, after which the result is returned to the computer for verification. It is also possible to use an electronic or manual interface here. In the latter case, the user reads the request from the terminal screen, types it on the token keyboard (perhaps a personal number is also entered at this time), and sees the answer on the token display and transfers it to the terminal keyboard.

Access Control

WITH Access controls allow you to specify and control the actions that subjects—users and processes—can perform on objects—information and other computer resources. We are talking about logical access control, which is implemented by software. Logical access control is a fundamental mechanism in multi-user systems designed to ensure the confidentiality and integrity of objects and, to some extent, their availability by denying service to unauthorized users. The task of logical access control is to determine for each pair (subject, object) a set of permissible operations, depending on some additional conditions, and control the execution of the established order. A simple example of the implementation of such access rights is that some user (subject) logged into the information system received the right of access to read information from some disk (object), the right of access to modify data in some directory (object) and the absence of any rights access to other resources of the information system.

TO access rights are controlled by various components of the software environment - the operating system kernel, additional security tools, a database management system, intermediary software (such as a transaction monitor), etc.

Logging and auditing

P Logging refers to the collection and accumulation of information about events occurring in an information system. For example, who tried to log into the system and when, how this attempt ended, who used what information resources, what information resources were modified and by whom, and many others.

A auditing is an analysis of accumulated information, carried out promptly, almost in real time, or periodically.

R The implementation of logging and auditing has the following main goals:

• holding users and administrators accountable;
• ensuring the possibility of reconstructing the sequence of events;
• detection of attempted information security violations;
• providing information to identify and analyze problems.

1. Symmetric encryption

The usual approach is to apply some encryption method (key) to the document, after which the document becomes unreadable by normal means. It can only be read by someone who knows the key (i.e. can apply an adequate method). The response message is encrypted in the same way. If in the process of exchanging information the same key is used for encryption and reading, then such a cryptographic process is symmetrical.

The problem is that before the exchange you need to transfer the key.

1. Asymmetric encryption

Not one, but two keys are used. The company creates two keys to work with the client: one – open (public) key and the other is closed (private) key. In fact, these are two “halves” of one whole key connected to each other.

The keys are designed so that a message encrypted by one half can only be decrypted by the other half (not the one with which it was encrypted).

The public key is distributed to the general public, the private key (private key) is securely stored.

A key is a certain code sequence.

The problem is that the private key can be reconstructed.

The principle of sufficiency of protection:

He assumes that the protection is not absolute, and the techniques for removing it are known, but it is still sufficient to make this action worthwhile. When other means appear that make it possible to obtain encrypted information in a reasonable time, the principle of operation of the algorithm is changed, and the problem is repeated at a higher level.

The field of science devoted to the study of methods for reconstructing a private key is called cryptanalysis

The average length of time required to reconstruct a private key from its published public key is called cryptographic strength encryption algorithm.

The digital signature of a document allows the recipient only to verify the authenticity of the sender of the document, but not to verify the authenticity of the document.

Two keys are created (using a special program received from the bank): private and public.

The public key is transferred to the bank. If you need to send an order to the bank for an operation with a current account, it is encoded public key bank, and your signature under it is encoded with your own private key.

The bank does the opposite. He reads the order using his private key, and the signature using the guarantor’s public key. If the signature is legible, the bank can be sure that it was we who sent the order and no one else.

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Means of cryptographic information protection (CIPF)

Konstantin Tcherezov, Leading specialist SafeLine, Informzashchita group of companies

WHEN We were asked to draw up criteria for comparing the entire Russian market for cryptographic information protection tools (CIPF), and I was slightly perplexed. Conducting a technical review of the Russian cryptographic information protection market is not difficult, but defining common comparison criteria for all participants and at the same time obtaining an objective result is a mission impossible.

Let's start from the beginning

Theater begins with a hanger, and technical review begins with technical definitions. CIPF in our country is so secret (they are poorly presented in the public domain), so their most recent definition was found in the Guiding Document of the State Technical Commission issued in 1992: “CIPF is a computer technology tool that carries out cryptographic transformation of information to ensure its security.”

The definition of the term “computer hardware” (CTF) was found in another document of the State Technical Commission: “CTF is understood as a set of software and technical elements of data processing systems that can function independently or as part of other systems.”

Thus, CIPF is a set of software and technical elements of data processing systems that can function independently or as part of other systems and carry out cryptographic transformation of information to ensure its security.

The definition turned out to be comprehensive. Essentially, CIPF is any hardware, hardware-software or software solution that in one way or another performs cryptographic information protection. And if we recall the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 691, then it, for example, for CIPF clearly limits the length of the cryptographic key - at least 40 bits.

From the above, we can conclude that it is possible to conduct a review of the Russian CIPF market, but to bring them together, to find criteria common to each and every one, to compare them and to obtain an objective result is impossible.

Average and general

Nevertheless, all Russian CIPFs have common points of contact, on the basis of which it is possible to compile a certain list of criteria for bringing all cryptographic means together. Such a criterion for Russia is the certification of CIPF by the FSB (FAPSI), since Russian legislation does not imply the concept of “cryptographic protection” without an appropriate certificate.

On the other hand, the “common points of contact” of any CIPF are the technical characteristics of the tool itself, for example, the algorithms used, key length, etc. However, when comparing CIPF according to these criteria, the overall picture turns out to be completely incorrect. After all, what is good and correct for a software-implemented crypto provider is completely ambiguously true for a hardware cryptographic gateway.

There is one more important point (may my “colleagues in the shop” forgive me). The fact is that there are two quite diverse views on CIPF in general. I'm talking about "technical" and "consumer".

The “technical” view of CIPF covers a huge range of parameters and technical features of the product (from the length of the encryption key to the list of implemented protocols).

The “consumer” view is fundamentally different from the “technical” view in that the functional features of a particular product are not considered as dominant. A number of completely different factors come first - pricing policy, ease of use, scalability of the solution, availability of adequate technical support from the manufacturer, etc.

However, for the CIPF market there is still one important parameter that allows you to combine all products and at the same time obtain a fairly adequate result. I’m talking about dividing all CIPF into areas of application and for solving certain problems: trusted storage; protection of communication channels; implementation of secure document flow (EDS), etc.

Thematic comparative reviews in the field of application of various Russian CIPFs, for example, Russian VPNs, that is, protection of communication channels, have already been carried out in this publication. Perhaps in the future there will be reviews devoted to other areas of application of CIPF.

But in this case, an attempt was made to simply combine all the cryptographic information protection solutions presented on the Russian market into a single table based on common “points of contact.” Naturally, this table does not provide an objective comparison of the functionality of certain products, but is merely a review material.

Generalizing criteria - for everyone

For a generalized table of the Russian cryptographic information protection market, the following criteria can ultimately be drawn up:

• Manufacturing company. According to publicly available data (Internet), there are currently about 20 companies developing CIPF in Russia.
• Type of implementation (hardware, software, hardware-software). Mandatory division, which nevertheless has very unclear boundaries, since there are, for example, CIPF obtained by installing some software component - control tools and the crypto library itself, and as a result they are positioned as hardware and software, although in fact they represent only BY.
• Availability of current certificates of conformity of the FSB of Russia and protection classes. A prerequisite for the Russian CIPF market, moreover, 90% of solutions will have the same protection classes.
• Implemented cryptographic algorithms (specify GOST standards). Also a prerequisite is the presence of GOST 28147-89.
• Supported operating systems. A rather controversial indicator, important for a software-implemented crypto library and completely insignificant for a purely hardware solution.
• Provided software interface. A significant functional indicator, equally important from both a “technical” and “consumer” view.
• Availability of SSL/TLS protocol implementation. Definitely a “technical” indicator that can be expanded from the point of view of implementing other protocols.
• Supported key media types. A “technical” criterion that gives a very ambiguous indicator for various types of CIPF implementation - hardware or software.
• Integration with Microsoft products and solutions, as well as with products and solutions from other manufacturers. Both criteria relate more to software cryptographic information protection systems of the “crypto library” type, while the use of these criteria, for example, for a hardware complex for constructing a VPN seems very doubtful.
• Availability of the product distribution kit in free access on the manufacturer’s website, dealer distribution network and support service (time criterion). All these three criteria are clearly “consumer”, and they come to the fore only when the specific functionality of the CIPF, the scope of application and the range of tasks to be solved have already been predetermined.

Conclusions

As a conclusion, I focus the reader’s attention on the two most important points of this review.